Religious Tolerance

Religious Tolerance

Islam in the Sultanate of Oman

Islamic Life in a Modern Arabian Society

Quotes of His Highness, Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al-Said
"Extremism, under whatever guise, fanaticism of whatever kind, factionalism of whatever persuasion would be hateful poisonous plants in the soil of our country which will not be allowed to flourish. Almighty God has sent down the Holy Quran with wisdom and clarity. He set out in it the general principles and Laws of Jurisprudence, but He did not express these in details which might differ from place to place and time to time...Therefore, in order that Muslims should not remain backward, while others advance, they are required by the Law of Islam to rectify this situation, and renew and revise their thinking, so they can apply the right solutions to modern problems that are facing the Islamic community. Thus they can show the world the reality of Islam and its principles which are applicable to all times and places. Obstinacy in religious understanding leads to backwardness in Muslims, prevalence of violence and intolerance. This, as a matter of fact, is far removed from Islam, which rejects exaggeration and bigotry, because it is the religion of liberality."

National Day Nizwa, 18.11.1994

"The path we have followed in our foreign policy over the past decades has shown itself to be both sound and effective, with God's guidance. We are committed to this approach, which supports justice, peace and security, and tolerance and love; which calls for international cooperation in order to reinforce stability, promote growth and prosperity and tackle the causes of tension in international relations by producing just and permanent solutions to critical problems; which fosters peaceful co-existence between nations; and which generates well-being and prosperity for the whole of mankind."

Majlis Oman, 14.11.2006

"The suppression of ideas and thought is a major sin, and we will never allow anyone to stifle freedom of thought… In our religion there is tolerance, morality and openness, and the venerable Quran stands for knowledge and thought. These verses do not call for sitting idly, unthinking, or to go through life blindly. It has never been, at any time, against inquiry or the seeking of knowledge. "

Sultan Qaboos University, 02.05.2000

Index

Oman in General

The Sultanate of Oman

Sons of Sindbad

The Nation's Accelerated Development

Islam and Oman

Islam arrives in Oman

Origins of lbadhiyah

Philosophy of Religious Tolerance 

Islamic Practices in Oman

Religious Coexistence Mosques in Oman

The Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque

The Role of Women in Society

Women in Politics

Birth Rites and Rituals

A Day in the Life: Religion

Funeral Customs

Holy Days and Alms-giving

Legal System

The Quran

Handing Down The Quran

Oman's Quranic Manuscripts.

The Quran in Daily Life

Oman in General

The Sultanate of Oman

The Sultanate of Oman covers the south-eastern edge of the Arabian Peninsula, and it is situated between the 16th and 26th degrees latitude and between the 51st and 59th degrees east longitude in the northern hemisphere.

Its surface area is 309,5000 square kilometers, roughly the size of Poland or the US state of New Mexico.

The landscape of Oman is varied. The northernmost part of the country, the Musandam Peninsula, lies on the Strait of Hormuz and is characterized by its fjords. It is separated from the rest of Oman by an approximately 50 kilometer wide strip of land which belongs to the United Arab Emirates.

North Oman is dominated by the jagged Hajar Mountains, which reach elevations of 3000 meters.

In the west the country is bounded by the great Arabian desert, which covers a quarter of the Arabian Peninsula and is sparsely populated, thus its name Al Rub al Khali, i.e. “the Empty Quarter."

Along the east coast, south of Al Ashkarah, spread the dunes of the Wihibah Sands.

South of the Hajar Mountains is an 800 kilometer long flat gravel desert stretching to southern Oman. From this dry plain the landscape rises into the thousand meter high Dhofar mountain range, a limestone massif which borders a vast plain which ends in sandy beaches as it reaches the sea.

The 200 kilometer long stretch of coast in the south of Oman has a unique climate, which from June through August each year is transformed into a green paradise by the misty rain and fog of the Southwest Monsoon.

Sons of Sindbad

The Omanis are an ancient seafaring people. Stories of their adventures have been distilled into the tales of Sindbad the Sailor, and they describe the historical sea routes from Sohar in Oman via Ceylon and Indonesia to Canton.

Already in the 8th century -- long before the first Europeans came along -- Omani traders sailed the "Seven Seas" as far as China, where dates were traded for silk and porcelain. Other goods which were traded include gold, ivory, and above all, spices.

Even in 2000 BC the civilizations of Sumer and the Indus Valley procured copper via sea routes from the dealers of "Magan", which is now Oman.

In the following ages the most important export was frankincense from southern Oman, traded primarily with the Egyptians and Romans. Frankincense was literally worth its weight in gold.

By the 19th century, the island of Zanzibar had developed into the center of the Omani trade empire. The basis for the economic rise was the trade in ivory and cloves. Slaves were sold in great numbers to the Europeans to work on plantations in Madagascar.

Today oil and natural gas are the most important export commodities. The main customers are South Korea, China, Thailand and Japan.

A network of new ports along the coast in the coming years will increase the importance of the country as a commercial shipping center on the Indian Ocean.

The Nation's Accelerated Development

When Sultan Qaboos took power in 1970, Oman was considered one of the most backward countries in the world.

However, the country was able within a few years to develop into an attractive modern state with an exemplary infrastructure, thanks to targeted investment utilizing the revenue from the petroleum business.

Islam and Oman

Islam arrives in Oman

In the year 629 the two kings of Oman, Abd and Jaifar, who were sons of Julanda and were living in Sohar, received a letter from the Prophet Mohammed exhorting them to convert to his new religion. Delegations between the kings and the Prophet were exchanged to study and consider this. Abd and Jaifar were convinced and converted freely, and it followed that Islam was accepted peacefully in Oman, without coercion.

The two kings of Oman united the Arab tribes and expelled the Persians. While the appointment of the governors of the Muslims was at that time the duty of the caliphs — first Abu Bakr, then Umar bin Al Khattab -- the political power remained in the hands of the Al Julanda dynasty until the time that Oman was annexed to Basra by the third caliph, Uthman bin Affan.

It is said that the Prophet once sent a man to another region of Arabia, where he was insulted and beaten. He returned to the Prophet and told him about it. Thereupon the Prophet praised the residents of Oman: "If you had come to the people of Oman, so would they neither have insulted nor beaten you."

Origins of lbadhiyah

After the bloody confrontation between the fourth caliph Ali and Muawiyah (the first Ummayad caliph, from which later developed the Shiite and Sunni schools of jurisprudence), it was decided by Abd bin Al Julanda that Oman would not follow either of these schools, and initially

Oman remained largely independent of Umayyad rule. However, due to military attacks attempting to coerce submission, the Al Julanda dynasty was forced to relocate to Africa, and as a result, a center of political resistance against the Umayyad rulership developed in Oman.

After various historical and religious developments the “Ibadhi school“ was formed. Oman was one of the most important areas of the Ibadhi school, in addition to Basra in Iraq.

Jabir bin Zayd was the founder of the Ibadhi school in 93 nH (711 AD). Born in Nizwa, Oman, he later went and settled in Iraq. In spite of the distance he continued to remain in close contact with his home country. The Al-Muhallab and Al-Azd tribes both supported him in the creation of this school.

Philosophy of Religious Tolerance

The philosophy of the lbadhis is based on the principle of religious tolerance and avoidance of conflict and violence, and other religious views or models of interpretation must be considered. Bloodshed due to theological differences is regarded as shameful. Prayers in the mosques throughout the country are conducted with Sunnis and Shiites at the sides of the lbadhis. The communal prayer to God knows no theological disputes. Everyone must answer for himself before God.

The Sunni imams are always chosen from among the members of the tribe of the Prophet Mohammed, the Quraish.The Shiites claim that the choice of the imam may only be a successor of Caliph Ali. For the lbadhis however, the ancestry of the imam to be elected is irrelevant. The lbadhis assume that every faithful and theologically educated Muslim is a potential candidate for the office of imam. The imam is the religious and secular head with full governmental power. He is “the first among equals" in the eyes of lbadhis, just as a human being is first among God's other creatures. Therefore the umma, the community of Muslims, selects from its ranks a believer who is best qualified for the office. If no one can meet the high demands of the office of imam, the position should remain temporarily unfilled. Similarly, an elected imam who does not meet expectations can be voted out of office. The first lbadhi imam was chosen in 132 AH (750 AD).

The system of the lmamate lasted until the end of the 19th century. Sunnis and Shiites have always lived in harmony and accord with the lbadhis, who have always been and continue to be the majority in Oman. There are lbadhis also in other countries, such as Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and countries of East Africa.

Islamic Practices in Oman

Religious Coexistence

Throughout history members of other faiths were found in Oman: Jews, Christians, Hindus and others. Due to principles of religious tolerance their presence was accepted in the past centuries, and they were not discriminated against because of their religious state, the Imamate.

Today a large number of followers of various religions are found in Oman, where the state guarantees freedom of religion. Christian churches of various denominations are found in Muscat and Salalah, and temples for Hindus and Buddhists as well.

Missionary activities are forbidden to all religious communities, including the Islamic.

The Ministry of Endowments and religious Affairs is responsible for the communities in Oman. It consciously promotes dialogue and discussions among the religions with the aims of raising awareness of commonalities, and strengthening the shared bonds of morality and justice.

Mosques in Oman

Mosques are an important part of Omani daily life. They serve as places of prayer, schools for the study of religion and as a meeting place for the community.

Mosques which were built in the Ibadhi tradition are simple structures and have no minaret. The simple interiors are occasionally adorned by decorations and calligraphy in the prayer niche and on the wooden ceiling.

Before the act of prayer a ritual washing is necessary, thus mosques were usually built near water sources such as wells or the traditional irrigation system of canals, the aflaj. In this age of municipal water supplies, mosques are located everywhere – often with separate prayer rooms for men and women.

The Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque

In 2001 the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque was completed in Muscat. The architecture of the mosque is subdued yet rich in detail and succeeds in combining the diverse artistic traditions of various Islamic eras and regions in grand harmony. This principle of design is also symbolic of the ideal of Omani society with various Islamic traditions and orientations all peacefully united under the roof of the Ibadhi.

The grounds of the mosque cover an area of 416,000 square meters. The main entrance is approached through three high arches which are aligned with the sunken lines of dark marble in the pavement and converge on the principle minaret. Its height of 91.5 meters is thus optically accentuated greatly due to the perspective. The entire mosque complex was erected on a rectangular base, at the corners of which are another four minarets, each with a height of 45 meters, completing the enclosure.

The wide prayer hall, measuring 61 x 71 meters, provides prayer space for 6600 believers. It is covered with a 4263 square meter carpet, a masterpiece of Persian carpet weaving. The optical counterpart to the fine carpet is the wooden ceiling, which is richly decorated with calligraphy and arabesques. The whole room is dominated by a 34 meter high dome. In its center hangs a chandelier made of Swarovsky crystal, whose 1122 lamps bathe the cupola in a magical light.

The Role of Women in Society

As Oman has developed into a modern, open state the changes in the way of life have contributed to changes in the prevailing practices and beliefs regarding women.

The government established literacy centers and made education compulsory for girls, and quite successfully! Since then the percentage of women studying has grown to the point that it became necessary to allocate quotas for men at the University of Muscat.

Additionally there are a variety of clubs and associations which are concerned with women's issues. These are entrusted with teaching, training and the expanding the number of possibilities for women. Whether or not is married, she should be able earn a living and contribute to the financial security of the family.

At many mosques one finds special rooms especially for women. Women learn about religion and the Quran from other women who are specialized in these matters. To this end the "Center for the Religious Instruction of women” was founded, where women also teach.

Women in Politics

Whatever form of discrimination women may have faced in the past, Omani women today have the force of law protecting their full political rights.

Women are as much involved politically in society as men. They have the right to vote and to run for election.

They hold ministerial posts in the Sultanate and serve as ambassadors abroad. Female Members of Parliament are present in both the Majlis A’Shura (Consultative Council) and the Majlis A’Dawla (State Council). In the private sector one finds women working at all levels: as ordinary employees, in management positions and also as managing directors and owners. No industry is closed to women. They hold official positions at all levels, serve in the military, and account for almost half of all employees in the government.

Birth Rites and Rituals

The birth of a child is for Omanis an important social occasion in which the whole family gathers, congratulations are conveyed and gifts are made.

It is customary to put money into the swaddling clothes of the newborn. The young mother takes her infant on visits to her parents’ house, where everyone gets involved in the happy event.

All of the rituals surrounding the birth of a child are influenced by religious rites. After the birth, the child is bathed and its eyes are adorned with kohl, a creme made using the soot of incense resin, similar to mascara. The umbilical cord was buried earlier, according to custom, in especially selected and blessed places.

Following another old custom in Oman, for each newborn son, a date palm is planted. It slowly grows to become the child's personal tree. Because date palms live about long as people, they can keep their owners from starvation. They are a traditional form of life insurance.

Immediately after the birth of the child, chewed dates are rubbed on the baby's gums, and the call to prayer is whispered in the right ear and a prayer for protection against the devil is whispered in the left ear, as instructed by the Prophet.

On the seventh day after birth the baby's head is shaved, the hair is weighed and a donation of silver is made of the equivalent weight. In addition, for a baby boy two animals are slaughtered; for a baby girl, one. On that day the child receives his or her name, and the family gathers for a special meal, the nasika. It is on this day that Muslim boys should be circumcised. In Oman it is required that circumcision take place in a hospital. (Female circumcision is prohibited by law).

A Day in the Life: Religion

Omani Muslims, men and women, start their day with the fajr, the morning prayer, which must be offered before sunrise, either in the mosque or at home. Afterwards everyone goes to work.

During the day the zuhr, or midday prayer, is performed in nearby mosques, or in special prayer rooms in the government buildings.

The Quran requires certain prayers to be said five times per day. Anyone who is unable to do so at the proscribed prayer times can make up for it at another time. When traveling, two prayers may be combined.

During the holidays many families travel to Mecca in order to perform the umrah, the “little” pilgrimage.

During the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from sunrise until sunset. The usual daytime activities take place at night during this time. One meets with neighbors, friends and acquaintances for a large repast, with everyone bringing a dish. On the many small floodlit sports grounds young people play soccer or volleyball till midnight. Everyone prays together in the mosques and thereafter meet in groups to simply sit and chat outdoors.

Ramadan is the time for communication in Oman. One reconnects with old friends and makes new ones. At this time the focus is not on business and getting ahead, but on one’s fellow man.

Funeral Customs

The rituals for the burial of the dead are based on religious teachings and may differ slightly depending on the ethnic group and traditional practices. All are agreed, however, that the dignity of the dead must be respected, whether man or woman.

The ritual begins with the washing of the body, which is then perfumed and wrapped in a white shroud. The funeral bier is carried on the shoulders to the cemetery where prayers are held. The prayer includes asking for mercy and forgiveness for the departed and imploring for his or her entrance into paradise.

Then the body is carried to the grave, which is a simple pit dug in the appropriate size and depth, into which the body is laid. It is covered with stones so that the funeral bier is not sullied with dust and dirt. Only then is the grave filled with earth.

Usually there is no indication who is buried in a grave, but grave sites may be marked to provide information about the gender of the deceased. A simple upright stone on either end of the grave marks the final resting place of a man; these plus a third stone in the center indicates that of a woman. On occasion someone may write the name of the deceased on a stone or a small table, which then fades with time. The Omanis rarely visit the graves of their loved ones. The care and maintenance of cemetery plots as is common among Christian denominations as a means of venerating the dead is not practiced in Islam.

Holy Days and Alms-giving

Immediately following the fasting month of Ramadan is the feast of Eid al-Fitr, the festival of breaking the fast. It has about the same social significance such as Christmas in traditionally Christian cultures, and is usually celebrated for three days. The children receive gifts from the parents -- but not the other way around! It is a huge celebration, and everyone wishes one another “Eid mubarak” - a blessed fest. .

The great Feast of the Sacrifice, Eid al-Adha, takes place on 9th day of Dhu-l-hiddja, the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. It lasts a week, and it is the traditional time of reflection and hajj, the annual pilgrimage to Mecca which every Muslim should attempt at least once in his life.

During Eid it is expected of everyone who can to support the poor and needy. This kind of voluntary donation (sadaqah) -- the amount of which the individual decides himself -- is in addition to the zakat, which is a form of tithing and obligatory.

The zakat (literally, cleansing) is the duty of every faithful Muslim, which is only collected from those whose wealth is above a certain threshold, and may be up to 2.5 percent of annual income. This historic form of social welfare is based on the Islamic imperatives of fraternity and cooperation. As a result the wealthy person’s possessions are “purified” by the donated portion, which according to the will of the Quran does not belong to him anyway. The coordination and allocation of donations is handled by church leaders, the prayer leaders in mosques, the imams, and the Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs. They advise whom is to be helped, and how.

Often the donations are made of comestibles such as rice, fat, sugar and salt, which are then delivered in person by the donor in large quantities directly to the recipient. The needy may be large families with low incomes, for example, or families who have become impoverished through accident or illness.

Legal System

Oman’s Constitution designates Islam as the official state religion and Islamic Sharia law as a basis of legislation. Legislation in the areas of marital status and family law, in particular, is consistent with Sharia. Civil and criminal law and judicial penalties must also be fully in compliance with international laws.

The Sultanate has signed laws adopted by the UN, in particular those relating to the protection of human rights, the protection of minorities, as well as the conventions against all forms of discrimination against women and to safeguard the rights of the child.

The rule of law, the sovereignty of the state, and the independence of the judiciary are among the most important principles that were established to protect the rights of every Omani citizen. Each defendant is presumed innocent until proven guilty by a legal process.

The use of physical and/or psychological abuse is prohibited. All penalties shall be in accordance with the law before which all citizens are equal.

The Quran

Handing Down The Quran

The Quran was revealed to the Prophet Mohammed over the course of 23 years and has since then been handed down by the Muslims.

The Quran has remained unchanged since the time of the Prophet: it contains 114 surahs of varying length, each containing verses. The total number of verses is 6236.

The Quran contains religious, social and political doctrines, moral teachings and stories of vanished cultures.

The Omanis believe that the Quran should be preserved and hallowed, items which have Quranic inscriptions must be honored, and each page is to be cherished. If a page ever becomes detached, it is most often rolled up and buried in a dry well, or plugged into cracks in the wall. The Quran is kept in elevated places and thus protected from desecration and abuse.

Even today, many Omanis learn the entire Quran by heart. Additionally it is often copied in its entirety by hand.

Oman's Quranic Manuscripts

Oman has some Quranic manuscripts which were made by Omani calligraphers. They are characterized by simplicity and clarity. Some manuscripts were written with gold ink and embellished with religious ornaments. Drawings of living creatures, however, do not exist.

Even today valuable Quranic manuscripts are commissioned. Sultan Qaboos bin Said had a copy of the Quran made, the decorations of which are inspired by the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque.

Another such manuscript was commissioned by the Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, and is referred to as “the Oman Quran.” It was completed in 2006 after eight years of continuous work and is unique in its beautiful and intricate designs.

The Quran in Daily Life

The Quran is the sacred book of Muslims. Muslim men, women and children recite it daily in their prayers and on other occasions. It is also available on CD and cassettes in order to listen to the Quran at home, in the car, at work, or in shopping centers. In Oman there are certain radio stations which broadcast religious programs and recitations of the Quran.

Additionally there are many Quran schools. Here the children learn not only the individual verses of the Quran by heart, and also learn that they are not to be understood literally, but should be interpreted based on present time and place.

Another important item in the curriculum of Quran schools is to convey the literary qualities of the Arabic language, as well as standards of good behavior and moral values in general. Every year there is a nationwide Quran competition, sponsored by Sultan Qaboos, which enjoys the participation of a large number of men, women and children.

Imprint

Organization and Conception:

Georg Popp, ARABIA FELIX Synform GmbH, Munich Germany

(+49 89) 3077 9200, www.oman.de

Alex Moll, Austellungen und Medien, Solingen Germany, (+49 212 ) 244 1135

Consulting: Juma Al-Maskari, Munich Germany

Layout and Graphic Design:

Violeta Gallego, Kegiseo GbR, Augsburg Germany

www.kegiseo.com

An Initiative of The Ministry for Endowments and

Religious Affairs of the Sultanate of Oman, Muscat

Project Director: Mohammad Said Al-Mamari

Exhibition Schedule and additional information:

www.islam-in-oman.com

In this exhibition 20 panels are presented with themes which strike a chord especially with us Europeans who are attenuated to Christianity, such as the coexistence of diverse religious communities; the practice of Islam in daily life; and the role of women in society. Additionally the exhibition attempts to convey the special significance placed by Muslims on their holy book, the Quran. The exhibition is meant to provide the visitor with insights into the practices of Islam, and to positively portray the Sultanate of Oman, by examining contemporary practices in Omani society.