Oman and Ibadhism: Part I

Preface to New Edition

It is God’s wisdom to try His creatures with good and evil, and with obedience and disobedience. “We test you with good and evil and to Us shall ye return” (The Quran).

           God has sent down to his apostle the Book in which there are verses which are basic or fundamental and others which are allegorical. Those which are basic are the foundation of the Book.

          Those in whose hearts is perversely follow the part thereof that is allegorical, seeking discord, and searching for its hidden meanings. Thus, people were divided into factions, and each faction believes to be on the right accusing another to be wrong. Among these factions are those who follow traditions and there are others who formulate independent decisions; yet there are others who are fanatic in their factions going to the extreme, and others who are tolerant looking for the truth from any source. “Had they referred their differences to the Apostle and to those endowed with authority among them they would know the truth.”

        We have the book of God and the Traditions of the Prophet, and it is up to us to refer to these two sources to avoid differences and mistakes. But God has willed that to be a fact of life, and Had He willed otherwise, He could have made them a single people; hence they still continue to disagree, “except those on whom thy Lord Hath bestowed His mercy: and for this did He create them: and the Word of thy Lord shall be fulfilled” (XI : 119).

          Among the Muslim factions is Ibadhism which relays on the Book, the Sunnah, the consensus and inference (Qiyas) in matters which are not found in the Book.

          Ibadhism is the fore-runner of all the factions and its scholars top the list of authors. They have been the first to write the translation of the Quran. They were the first to compile the Traditions and the first to write about jurisprudence (Fiqh).

          The revision of this book has been made to meet the demands of the many readers who wanted to know more about Ibadhism. I hope this will satisfy their quest………

Dec. 1988              AHMED HAMOUD AL MAAMIRY

1 PART

1

The Meaning of Islam

ISLAM means submission to God and Muslims are submitted to the authority of Allah only. Submission to God does not need any mediation or mediator, and that is why all the prophets of God are regarded by the Muslims as Muslims. Thus, Islam is introduced as the natural religion that is based on and is harmonious with human nature and conscience; for the authority of God is a natural thing to believe in.

          Submission simply means to follow and to obey the teachings of God. To believe in one and only one God and that Muhammad is His true messenger through whom came His teachings.

          Using the term Muhammadan for Muslim or Muhammadanism for Islam is objectionable to Muslims because the Muslims do not worship Muhammad. Muslims worship God alone and Muhammad is simply His messenger and apostle who led his followers into the light of truth commanding great respect, but cannot be raised above the level of man.

          As the ideal person, Muhammad’s way of life is exemplary not only to Muslims but to all the people. Thus, Islam as a comprehensive religion spiritually, socially, economically, culturally, psychologically and in all other aspects is an ideal system which allows no loophole for criticism, and because of its comprehensive nature, Islam has remained and will continue to remain intact till the day of Judgement.

          Anyone interested to learn about Islam will do so from the Kuran and from those prophetic traditions which are recognised to be correct. Thus, the truth is there for everybody who is interested to know it, and there is no room to avoid it in a pretext for seeking what is one’s convenience. The straight path is only one—that is God’s teachings and prophetic traditions—and this cannot be subdivided.

          For reasons of differences in interpretations of certain Kuranic verses and prophetic traditions by the later students of Islam, we find today many sects among the Muslims; and although each sect claims to be the ideal, it is only those who follow the Holy Kuran and the recognised prophetic traditions that are on the straight path regardless of what sect they might belong to.

          It is common these days to find that some people prefer a certain sect with full confidence in all its beliefs without bothering to go into the details of such a sect, and conversely, hate another sect also without trying to know its details. Here lies the mistake since blind following is generally misleading.

          Among the divisions of Muslim sects are those who call themselves the righteous people, just people, perfect people etc., and believe that they are actually on the right path, and call those not in their line deviators and heretics and accuse them to be erroneous and astray. Such beliefs based on sectarian selfishness should perish and be replaced by the fact that in Islam there is only one community—that is the Muslim community which has been nurtured by the Almighty God with blessings. All Muslim sects believe in two main sources for their guidance: the Kuran and the prophetic traditions, and each sect claims that it follows the Kuran and the traditions.

          It was the sectarian fanaticism, political elements, remoteness of Muslims among themselves and ignorance of one sect about the other which acted as barriers and prevented the Muslims from knowing each other. Now that the Muslims come into closer contact among themselves and know each other better, it is time their sectarian differences be eradicated and their word united. No special sect can claim to be the sole follower of the prophetic traditions and call itself Ahli Sunnah. All Muslims as long as they follow the Kuran and the traditions are Ahli Sunnah regardless of their trifling differences which are superficial, such as recitation of Bismillahi during prayers, raising of hands at glorification (Allahu Akbar), straightening the finger while witnessing that there is no god but Allah (Tashahud), staying till dawn with ritual impurity (Janaba) during the month of Ramadhan, reducing prayers when travelling, inheritance and such small things. Perhaps the question of consensus may be more controversial. This term—consensus (Ijmaa)—is a conclusion arrived at as a result of independent judgement on a legal question based on the interpretation and application of the four foundations of Islamic jurisprudence, namely, the Kuran, Sunnah, analogy (Kias) and consensus (Ijmaa). An effort to come to that judgement is called Ijtihad, as opposed to individual judgement of Taqlid.

          When a Shia, for example says that the Muslims have reached a consensus, he means followers of his sect, and similarly when a Sunni says so, he means the followers of the four sects. This belief sounds incorrect in that consensus is valid only when followers of all sects sit together and make an effort (Ijtihad) to reach a consensus. There is no reason, therefore, to believe that one sect is inferior to another. The fact that each sect in Islam has rendered notable services in one way or the other makes it imperative that all Muslims belong to one community. 

          Thus, the more sectarianism and division there is in the Muslim world, the more need is there for the Gospel of Unity. Islam must steadfastly pursue its way, and must not be deflected by worldly or political motives. Islam’s faith must be directly in God and God’s Revelation and it must judge justly between warring factions, as the religion of Peace and Unity.  

          Thus the logical conclusion to the evolution of religious history is a non-sectarian, non-racial, non-doctrinal, universal religion, which Islam rightly claims to be, for Islam is just submission to the will of God. This implies faith, doing right, being all example to others to do right, and having the power to see that the right prevails, eschewing wrong, being example to others to eschew wrong, and having the power to see that wrong and injustice are defeated. Islam, therefore, lives not or itself, but for the entire mankind.

2

Omanis and Islam

LED by Malik bin Faham Al-Uzdi, the Arabs came to Oman from Yemen many years before Islam was preached. When Prophet Muhammad—Peace be upon him—preached Islam, Oman was under the rule of the family of Bani Shams and the King was Al-Julandy ibn Mustakbar. It is not known for sure whether AI-Julandy embraced Islam or not but it is believed that he had died before Islam came to Oman. It is known for sure, however, that Islam came to Oman during the reign of the two princes, Jeifer and Abd, the sons of AI- Julandy, and its people accepted the religion willingly and gracefully.

          There is more than one version of how Islam reached Oman. It is recorded that the first Omani to embrace Islam was one Mazin Ibn Ghadhuba who came from the town of Samail, in the interior of Oman. The story is that when he heard about the Prophet he willingly travelled to Al-Madinah where he was converted by the Prophet himself. The Prophet prayed for him and for the people of Oman.

          The story says that Mazin was guarding his idol called Najir which was being worshipped by the Bani Khatama and Bani Al-Samit tribes in Samail. Mazin relates that he heard a voice from the idol that day saying:

“O, Mazin, listen and cheer up;

The good has come and the evil has disappeared.

The Prophet has been sent among the Arabs,

To (proclaim) the religion of Allah, the most powerful.

“Abandon, thou, the curved stone

And be safe from the fire of the Hell.”

Mazin was terrified, but after a few days he

heard another voice from the idol saying:

“Come near me, and listen what cannot be ignored.

This is a Prophet; (who) has been sent

With the truth (Revealed from God)

Trust in him, so that ye be spared

From the burning fire,

Fueled from stones.”

          Mazin said “This is astonishing and the best omen for me. And while we were in such a situation a man from Hegaz came to us, and we told him: ‘What is the news?’ and he said: ‘A man called Ahmad has appeared and he tells (everyone) who approaches him ‘Accept the call of God.’” Mazin said

“This is what I have heard, and I went and crushed the idol

(into pieces) and mounted my (horse) and went to the Prophet

of God—Peace be upon him—and embraced Islam.”

          Mazin asked the Prophet to pray for the people of Oman and the Prophet said “O Lord, guide them and make them firm.” Mazin asked the Prophet for more prayers for the people of Oman, and the Prophet prayed saying “O, Lord, grant them righteousness and sufficiency and satisfaction for what Thou hast bestowed upon them.” Mazin said “I said, O Messenger of God, the sea sprinkles around us; pray to God for our provisions and cheerfulness. And the Prophet prayed ‘O Lord, expand for them their provisions and increase their bounties from their sea.’” Mazin said “More” and the Prophet said “O, Lord, inflict not over them an enemy from those not among them”. Then the Prophet told Mazin to say Amen saying “Say Amen, O Mazin, for (by) Amen the prayer is answered.” Mazin said “Amen.”

Mazin said to the Prophet: “O, Messenger of God, I am very devoted to amusement (with music) and drinking of liquor and obstinate to women. Much of my wealth has gone for these things and I have no son; pray to God that these disappear from me and that he grants me a son who will delight my eyes and that He grants us life.” And the Prophet prayed:

“O Lord, substitute his amusement with recitation of the Kuran, and that which is forbidden for that which is allowed and prostitution for chastity and liquor for thirst-quenching drink, pure and clean, and grant him life and a son to be a delight for his eyes.” Mazin said “And Lord removed from me what I used to get from the amusement and the initiative for such things, and I performed many pilgrimages, and memorized part of the Kuran, and got married to four wives among the Arabs and I got a son whom I called Hiyan bin Mazin. Oman then became fertile in that year and the years that followed and it came on them (people of Oman) cheerfulness and sufficiency and fishing activities were increased and commercial profits increased, and many Omanis embraced Islam.”

          Mazin concluded his story saying that in the following years he went to the Prophet and told him that God has guided the people of Oman to his Religion and Oman had become a fertile land and profits and fishing have increased therein. The Prophet then said “My Religion is the Religion of Islam, and God will increase for the people of Oman fertility and fishing. Blessed and blessed are those who believed in me and saw me, and blessed are those who believed in me without seeing me, and blessed are those who believed in me without seeing me or seeing those who saw me; and God will increase to the people of Oman Islamism.”

          After Mazin’s return to Oman many people embraced Islam individually. This could easily have happened without much trouble, and it is possible that there were already a few Muslims in Oman before the Prophet sent his messenger, Amr ibn Al-As, to the King of Oman in the year 630 A.D., asking him and his people to accept Islam, as he had asked many other monarchs.

          The legends have it that the Prophet sent a letter to Kisra Ibruwin, son of Kisra Anu Sharwan, calling him to accept Islam, but Kisra tore the Prophet’s letter into pieces. When the Prophet was informed about what Kisra did, he said “God will tear him up into pieces.” Thereafter Kisra did not stay any longer as his son Shayrowih killed him. Shayrowih then sent a letter to Baazan (or Fastaban) in Oman asking him to send an Arab-Persian man (one who speaks Arabic and Persian), honest and trustworthy, and who has studied books; to Hegaz to bring news about this Arab who claims to be a Prophet. Baazan (or Fastaban) sent a man called Kaab Ibn Birsha Al-Tahy who was a Christian and learned. He went to Al-Madinah and approached the Prophet and talked to him. He found in the Prophet the qualities which he saw in the books and ascertained that he was a messenger. The Prophet told him about Islam and he embraced the religion and returned to Oman. He went to Baazan and told him that the Prophet—Peace be upon him—is the (real) Prophet. Baazan then said that he wanted to inform the King. He then appointed his relative called Maskan to look after the interests of his people residing in Oman, and travelled to see Kisra in Persia.

          By then the Prophet wrote to the people of Oman, and the King at that time was Al-Julandy Ibn Al-Mustakbar. The Prophet called him and his people to accept Islam to which he responded. The King in his turn wrote to the Persians residing in Oman, who were adherents of Mazdaism, to accept Islam but they refused. Al-Julandy then expelled them from Oman.

          Until that time, Oman was occupied mainly by tribes of Al-Azd and Adnan under the leadership of either Al-Julandy or his two sons, Jeifer and Abd; and as a result of a truce between Al-Julandy and the Sasanians, there was a Sasanian garrison estimated to be of about 4000 people who settled at Jamsetsjer near the town of Sohar. As to the religion of the people of Oman at this time, there might have been a few Jews and Christians among the population; but the majority are most likely to have been worshippers of idols and images.

          According to Islamic tradition, Prophet Muhammad—Peace be upon him—sent his messenger, Amr Ibn Al-As to Oman with a letter to the two princes Abd and Jeifer some nine years after the Prophet had resorted to Al-Madinah (Hijra). That was in the year 630 A.D. He called upon them to accept Islam. The wording of the letter was as follows:—

          “In the name of God, the most Gracious, the most Merciful. From Muhammad the Messenger of God to Jeifer and Abd, the sons of Al-Julandy. Peace be upon those who follow the true religion. After compliments, I call you to embrace Islam—accept it and you will be saved, for I am the Messenger of God to all humanity. (I have come) to warn the living that affliction will befall unbelievers. If you accept Islam, as I hope you will, all will be well, but if you refuse to accept it, your kingdom will vanish and my horses will trample your grounds and my religion will triumph over your kingdom.”

          The letter was stamped with the seal of the Prophet which read, “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.”

          Because of the contents of the Prophet’s letter, non-sympathisers with the Religion of Islam have found a pretext to accuse the people of Oman that they accepted Islam not out of conviction but because of fear, strategy or expediency. The explanation given is that the sons of Al-Julandy, having heard of the Prophet’s success in repelling the aggression of his own people against himself and his message, feared the onslaught of the forces of the Prophet on the one hand, and on the other hand thought it expedient to embrace Islam so as to have the Muslim Armies as allies against the Sasanian garrison at Jamsetsjer near Sohar. These are mere conjectures and there is no evidence whatsoever to substantiate them. The fact, therefore, is that after consultations with the elders and the leaders of the tribes, and particularly after making judicious enquiries as to the nature of the Prophet’s message and the teachings of this new Religion, the two princes in consultation with the leaders reached a unanimous decision to accept Islam as a true religion and to live by its tenets.

          Thus, the accusation that the sons of Al-Julandy accepted Islam out of fear is not valid. In comparison with the Prophet’s letter to these Princes, King Solomon’s letter to Bilqis, Queen of Shiba, was no less strong. The text of King Solomon’s letter read: “In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful: Be ye not arrogant against me, but come to me in submission (to the true Religion).”

          Bilqis called her chiefs and said: “Ye Chiefs! Here is—delivered to me—a letter worthy of respect. It is from Solomon, and it is ‘In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.’ She asked for the advice of her chiefs and said “Ye Chiefs! Advise me in (this) my affair: no affair have I decided except in your presence.”

          King Solomon expressly begins his letter with the formula of the true and universal Religion of Unity, and he invites to the true Faith the new people with whom he establishes honourable relations, not for worldly conquests but for the spreading of the Light of God. Similarly, Prophet Muhammad’s letter to Jeifer and Abd was not seeking worldly conquests but spreading the Light of God. Both Bilqis and the Princes consulted their people, and they knew that the letters did not come from the ordinary kings who conquer by violence. Thus, it was not fear but conviction which made them Muslims.

          As for the Sasanian garrison, when they refused to accept Islam, it was the Azdis themselves who expelled them out of the country without any military assistance from any quarters. Thus, Islam came to stay and to expand in Oman. Jeifer and Abd, having accepted Islam themselves, appealed to the tribes to follow their example. There is no doubt that it must have taken some time for the whole of Oman to become Muslim and that some of the old pre-Islamic traditions died hard. This must have come about after a good deal of teaching, for which the Omanis were later noted and became renowned for their scholastic achievements.

          Amr Ibn Al-As was assigned to teach the people of Oman the new Religion and stayed in Oman until he heard of the death of the Prophet. It is believed that Amr stayed in Oman for two years during which period he taught the people of Oman as much as he could about Islam and he commanded high respect and was the most welcome brother Muslim.

          When news of the death of the Prophet reached him, he decided to return to Al-Madinah, and Prince Abd accompanied him with a group of Azdi nobility. When they arrived at Al-Madinah, Sayyidina Abubakar who was then the Caliph, made a speech of welcome to the Omani delegation and said:

          “O people of Oman, you embraced Islam voluntarily; neither the Prophet trampled your land, nor did you inflict suffering on him as did other Arabs. You never aimed at disunity, so Allah brought you together in pursuit of virtue. Then the Prophet sent you Amr Ibn Al-As without army or weapons and you answered when he called you (to accept Islam) in spite of the distance of your abode. You obeyed his commands in spite of your superiority in number. What graciousness! And what action is nobler than your action? The Prophet’s word of praise is enough honour for you to the day of reckoning. And then Amr stayed with you, honoured and respected, and returned safely to us; and God bestowed upon you the Islam of Abd and Jeifer, the sons of Al-Julandy, thus, strengthening your arm by it, and also strengthening Islam by your allegiance to it. You were in the best of circumstances and placed yourselves in a position which merited our commendation. You counselled sincerely and made your contribution both in self and material wealth. May Allah make your word firm and guide your souls!”

          Best relations existed between Al-Madinah and Oman during the Caliphate of Sayyidina Abubakar. There happened, however, one incident at Dabah near the town of Sohar where a fierce battle was fought between the natives of that village and the collectors of taxes (Sadaqa) led by Hudhayfa bin Muhsin Al-Ghalfani.

          The incident took place towards the last days of Sayyidina Abubakar’s Caliphate; when Hudhayfa was sent to Oman to collect taxes. At Dabah the collectors were demanding taxes from the descendants of Al-Harith bin Malik bin Faham. When they approached one woman and demanded from her a fully grown-up sheep, she offered to pay a young goat or a young camel instead of the sheep. When this was refused, the woman cried for help saying: “Oh children of Malik . . .” On hearing this cry, Hudhayfa regarded the call as a call of the “Jahiliya”—the times before Islam—and feared that the people had abandoned their faith. He prevailed upon them and took some captives with him to Al-Madinah.

          It is said that after this incident a delegation comprising Sabia bin Urak Al-Saylamy, Al-Maally bin Saad Al-Khamamy and Al-Harith bin Kulthum Al-Hadidy left for Al-Madinah to explain to the Caliph what had actually happened and to assure the Caliph that the people of Dabah had not abandoned their faith; and that they had never refrained from paying taxes. They accused Hudhayfa of making an impulsive decision and said that they chose not to take any action out of respect for the Caliph—instead they preferred to refer the matter to him. After some deliberation the captives were allowed to return to Oman.

          During the Caliphate of Sayyidina Omar, following the death of Sayyidina Abubakar, Oman came under the Governorship of Othman bin Al-As Al-Thaqafy, who had his headquarters in Bahrain.

          Oman was ruled all this time by Abd and Jeifer whose relations with the Caliphs, Abubakar and Omar, were the best that could be expected. They owed complete allegiance to the two Caliphs and remitted the annual taxes to them without failure. The reign of Abd and Jeifer can be described as a reign of peace, prosperity and religious fervour and the beginning of the cultivation of literary achievements.

          It is not known for sure when Abd died, but his brother Jeifer is believed to have died in 634 A.D. Thereafter Abbad bin Abd, son of Abd, became the ruler of Oman. His rule came during the time of Caliphs Othman and Ali. When discord arose and the kingdom passed into the hands of Muawiya, Oman did not come under the authority of Muawiya until Abdul Malik bin Marwan came to power and appointed Al-Hajjaj as Governor of Iraq, when Suleiman and Said, the sons of Abbad ruled Oman and the Umayyads then occupied Oman. This occupation continued until the advent of the Abbasside period when Abbul-Abbas Al-Saffah assumed power and became the first Abbasside ruler who appointed his uncle Suleiman bin Ali as Governor of Basra, with Bahrain and Oman as its two dependencies. Suleiman, in his turn, appointed Jenah bin Abbadeh Al Hinai as his delegate over Oman.

          For Oman, this was a period of conflict and discord as opposed to the period of tranquility, prosperity and scholarship that preceded the occupation of the country by Al-Hajjaj. It was a period of contradictions that emanated from the battle of Saffain between the forces of Muawiya and Ali—which led to doctrinal disunity among Muslims and lamentable loss of life.