Finally, on this day, I received my new and most
expensive book. It is entitled as
"Ibadism: Origins and Early Development in Oman" and authored by,
John C.Wilkinson.
I am not advertising the book or approving it but
I'm hoping to get benefit from it, and also to use it to enrich the Blog,
inshAllah!
The book
contains 14 chapters. The abstract of each chapter is as follows:
1)
The Pre‐Islamic Heritage:
Yaman And Nizâr
This chapter
outlines the importance of the tribal dimension in the origins of Ibâḍism, demonstrating that its ideology
found fertile ground amongst the Yamani tribes of Iraq following the defeat of
their two great revolts against Umayyad authority and Hijazi hegemony, that of
Ibn al–Ash'ath al–Kindi and Yazid b. al–Muhallab al–Azdi. Using little known
Omani sources and new epigraphic, archaeological, and linguistic evidence
concerning pre-Islamic Arabia and the Sabaeo-Himyaritic state, it questions
standard explanations concerning the origins of the Yaman-Nizar divide based on
Ibn al–Kalbi's manipulations of genealogical history, notably with respect to
the Azd diaspora and Qudâ'a. It demonstrates that there was a very real divide
between the Northern and Southern tribes in pre-Islamic times which proved a
highly significant factor in the political history of the Umayyad period in the
ex-Sasanid lands.
2)
The Pre‐Islamic Heritage:
Mazûn And The Arabization Of Arabia
This chapter
continues with the pre-Islamic period and explains the tribal background with
which the Imamate had to come to terms on Oman, its role in the Yaman–Nizâr
civil war, and the alienation of northern Oman from the core of the Ibâḍi state. Basic relationships were
rooted in the territorial distribution of Arab migration waves in eastern
Arabia and the domination of the Azd and Kinda clans, under whose leadership
the first Imamates were set up in southern Arabia. Oman formed part of the
Persian Empire and as its importance grew in Indian Ocean trade, it was
directly occupied and developed under the name of Mazûn in late Sasanid times.
The subject and marginalized status of the Arab tribesmen was a matter for
scorn for the over-weaning Hijazis, but gave the Arabs a certain empathy with
the peasants and under-privileged. Ibâḍi, like all Khariji ideology, was rooted in the notion of
equality before God and this led eventually leading to a remarkable
assimilation of the tribes and villagers after the Imamate was established in
Oman.
3)
The Conversion To
Islam
This chapter
discusses pre-Islamic religion and the conversion of the Arab tribes in Oman,
how they drove the Persian occupants out and took possession of the settled
lands. It then examines the conflicting histories of the ridda
(apostasy) wars in some detail, not only because anything new relevant to the
period of the Prophet and the immediate aftermath of his death is of concern to
Muslim history, but also because the tribal and religious bias of the classical
Arabic sources against the Yamani tribes and the much feared Ibâḍi ‘shurât’ has downplayed the
role of Oman. The chapter concludes with an examination of the system of
Caliphate government as it became incorporated into the Islamic state and the
tribes became involved in campaigns in Sasanid territory, first based on Tawwaj
and then on Basra (Ch IV), with the consequence that Oman itself lapsed into a
tribal backwater under the pre-Islamic dynasty of the Julandâ.
4)
The Omani Tribes
In Basra
This chapter
pursues the fortunes of the Azd and other ‘Gulf’ tribes in the Fârs campaign
and then in Basra, their role in the Battle of the Camel, and the formation of
the Azd khums. Misapprehension concerning the term Azd 'Umân has distorted this
early history: all the Azd in Basra were Omani but there was a wave of new
migrants, essentially bedu (who may well have been excluded by 'Uthmân)
at the end of Mu'âwiya's reign and these new migrants played a crucial role in
events in Basra at the start of the second civil war. Basra was now threatened
by the Azâriqa, Khawârij extremists, and was saved by al–Muhallab, whose family
were not originally of Omani ashrâf origins, but military leaders. This
marked the real rise in Omani fortunes as Muhallab and his son Yazid received
governorships of enormous dimensions and inevitably a growing determination of
Hajjaj to break the powers of the great Yamani leaders, the Kindi al–Ash'ath
from Kufa and Yazîd b. al–Muhallab al–Azdi from Basra.
5)
The Origins Of Ibâḍism
This chapter
examines Khâriji/Muhakkima beginnings, their adherence to the absolute
authority of the Qur'ân, and the subsidiary role of the Prophet's sunna.
All the early secessionists came from Kûfan Nizâri splinter groups and involved
no Yaman tribes, either from Kûfa or Basra. The Ibâḍis recognize a true line of revolts
down to the Tamîmi Abû Bilal (61/680), but no other until their own,
sixty-seven years later. The characteristics of these early secessionists are
examined. The Khawârij who went to Ibn Zubayr in 64, including the mysterious Ibn
Ibâḍ, were Tamîm or
Hanîfa (Nizâr) and the failure of their mission resulted in a split,
represented as between the extremist Azâriqa and moderate Ibâḍis, with the Sufris somewhere
between. This model does not stand up to examination. The non-Azâriqa were
essentially divided between qu'ûd and shirâ ' (quietists and
activists), split ideologically over relations with other Muslims, maintaining
unity, and when to secede (khurûj). The Sufris activated earlier than
the Ibâḍis because they
operated amongst the Iraqi Nizar tribes, and were first in North Africa. It was
not dogma but the tribal domain that made Sufris and Ibâḍis rivals.
6)
The Early Ibâḍis
This chapter
discusses the nature and key figures as Ibâḍism took form in Basra, the proto-Ibâḍi period. It starts with a study of
the primary source on which the origins of the movement were modelled in late
Maghribi sources, a work attributed to Abû Sufyân, but which is frequently in
conflict with extant material from his own correspondence and reports from his
son Abu 'Abdullah. A thorough study of the main personalities from early
sources, much of which has only recently become available (including the
correspondence of Jâbir b. Zayd), throws new light on relations with 'Umar II
and his son '.Abd al–Mâlik, to whom it is suggested IB 1 was addressed, and the
activation of the movement in the 120s culminating in a joint Omani–Hadrami
revolt that temporarily took possession of the Holy Cities. An attempt is made
to show that while Jâbir b. Zayd and Abû 'Ubayda were key figures for doctrine
and law, certain others were responsible for activating the movement, Hâjib
al–Tâ'iy, al–Rabî' b. Habîb, Dumâm b. Sâ'ib. Reconsideration is also given to
Sâlim b. Dhakwân.
7)
The Propagation Of
Ibâḍism From Basra
This chapter
starts with a failed attempt to set up an Ibâḍi state in Oman at the very start of the 'Abbasid period, and
the resulting feud with the Julandâ. It continues with a study of how Ibâḍism was diffused from Basra through
the Hajj, merchant and tribal networks, missionary activities, and the written
word (important for the Maghrib). It then considers two fundamental concepts, walâya,
the cement binding the community through association with God; and its opposite
barâ'a, dissociation. The fundamental dogmas and schisms with which it
dissociates are then examined, notably Mu'tazilism, the Qadariyya, Murji'a, and
Khawârij (now a pejorative term), and a major internal schism, that of the
Shu'aybiyya which had wide ramifications in that of the Nukkarites in North
Africa, as also the breakaway of the Yemen community. The chapter concludes
with a brief historical survey of Ibâḍism in North Africa and establishing the Rustamid Imamate at
Tahert.
8)
The Establishment
Of The Imamate In Oman
This chapter
explains how the tribal rivalry of the Julandâ feud was exploited by the Ibâḍi missionaries to win victory at the
battle of Majâza (177/793) and establish the Imamate. It analyses the basic
balance of power between various potential factions and how and why the first
main Imams were selected, along with a brief description of their rule. The
chapter ends with Omani overseas expansion, showing how an Omani navy was
organized, the piratical menace of the bawârij who had menaced Indian Ocean
trade since the collapse of Sasanid power were dealt with, and Sohar became a
major entrepôt.
9)
Law And Order
This chapter
describes the establishment of the new Imamate state order, and in particular
the role of Abû 'Abdullah, son of the last Basran leader, Abu Sufyân. The
confrontation with the conservative Omani ‘ulama’ is characterized by
the acrimonious theological debate over the Creation of the Qur'ân and the
suspect nature of Mu'tazili influence. Abû 'Abdullâh's role in developing the
principles for selecting an Imam, the issue of wuqûf (suspending
judgment), advising other Ibâḍi communities, but
above all in harmonizing Islamic principles with the pragmatic needs of daily
life in Oman are illustrated. The establishment of a maritime legal code commensurate
with expanding maritime trade is described, including discussion of the
re-conquest of Socotra as a base on the African coast, whose interest in the
Muslim world at this time was as a source of slaves from both Abyssinia and
increasingly Bilâd al–Zanj. An attempt is also made to reconstruct the early
history of the Imamate in Hadramawt.
10)
The Ibâḍi Ethos
This chapter
describes the underlying ethos in Ibâḍism of equality before God, and illustrates this with particular
reference to the protection of the rights of the peasants and other producing
classes. It shows the ability of Ibâḍi law to adapt to the needs of an agricultural economy in two
entirely different environments — that of Oman based on an ancient pre-Islamic falaj
irrigation system, and that of colonization de novo in the Mzab. As barriers
between the indigenous village population and the Arab tribesmen broke down,
the majûs converted and a remarkable assimilation of the villagers and
tribesmen occurred that is not characteristic of neighbouring regions.
Nevertheless, the concern for protecting the little man from illegal seizure in
an agricultural economy now based on privately owned mulk small holdings,
led to a sterilization of vast areas of former production, when land that fell
into the hands of jabâbira (tyrants) reverted to Ibâḍi rule, while a tax system that
failed to recognize inputs other than labour as a factor of production did not
encourage reinvesting in expensive irrigation reconstruction.
11)
Civil War And
Aftermath
This chapter
analyses the causes of the civil war sparked off by the deposing of Imam
al–Salt in 272/886 and which ended up with the collapse of the First Imamate in
a Caliphate invasion. It was not really Yaman versus Nizâr conflict, but an
increasing marginalization of the northern tribes in manoeuvres over power and
patronage in the Imamate system. The actual deposing and replacement of the
Imam led to a growing dispute between the so-called Rustâq and Nizwâ parties,
which is examined and shown as less to do with politics than principles in the
early days of its formulation by Abû Sa'îd al–Kudami and Ibn Baraka. An attempt
is made to resolve the confusion over dating events and personalities involved
in the complex relationship between interior Oman and the occupying powers on
the coast (Saffarids, Bûyids, Qarâmita and their Omani vassals) in the ensuing
period, to understand how the (Second) major Imamate was re-established, Rustâq
party dogma declared official, causing the Hadrami Imam Abû Ishâq Ibrâhîm b.
al–Qays to break away as well as finally alienating the northern Omanis.
12)
Consequences
This chapter
considers the changes resulting from these events as they affected Ibâḍi theory concerning types of Imam,
the principle of one Imam in a misr , permitted behaviour towards
occupying powers, and what is permitted in warfare against the jabâbira
and ahl al–baghi (tyrants and renegades). It continues with a survey of
the evolution of Ibâḍi fiqh
during this period, the concern with recovering and recording past records (taqyîd)
into hifz and jawâmi', culminating in works like the Musannaf and
Bayân al–Shar', and with it abandonment of the old peculiarly Ibâḍi form of siyar literature.
In the process, Ibâḍism opened itself
to developments elsewhere in the Islamic world, notably Sunni norms: analysis
of Omani, Maghribi, and Hadrami contemporary literature shows how hadîth
were absorbed into the âthâr of the community but without the
accompanying isnâd scholarship. The key figures of the period as well as
their literature are surveyed. The chapter concludes with a preliminary
discussion of the last main figure of the 5/11th century, al–'Awtabi.
13)
The 6/12TH Century
This chapter
attempts to reconstruct the even more fragmentary history of the 6/12th
century, with intermittent Imams and increasing regional dislocation, the end
of Ibâḍism in Hadramawt,
the rise of the Nabâhina whose origins are reconsidered, the start of a major
incursion of 'Amiri tribes from Bahrayn which was to shift the whole political
geography of northern Oman in the ensuing centuries; likewise a major
reorientation of Indian Ocean trade with the rise of the Red Sea–Mediterranean
axis and expansion of Muslim colonization on the East African coast and a
consequent shift of the Omani entrepôt to Qalhât in conjunction with the
establishment of Hormuzi power. Yet despite this century being the prelude to
Oman's ‘Dark Ages’, it was an era of very active Ibâḍi scholarship and even missionary
activities, including a re-conversion of Kilwa which was celebrated by the last
major figure treated in this book, al–Qalhâti.
14)
Madhhabization
This chapter
examines the final stages in Ibâḍism developing as a madhhab. In Oman it was essentially
the work of 'Awtabi who finalized the process of conforming to the criteria of
the Shâfi'i-Ash'ari school, but avoiding the Sunni criteria of hadîth
scholarship by formalizing a chain of Ibâḍi hamalat al–'ilm, whose âthâr provide the
equivalent of the Sunni isnâd chains. A comparison is made between
developments in Oman and the Maghrib where two trends evolved — one
introspective, aimed at ensuring the survival of true values in the small
communities like the Mzab; the other to establish oneself as the true firqa
and go out and do battle with the others. The latter approach prevailed in
Oman, but in a 5–6/11–12th century revivalist movement in the Maghrib it went
to the extent of Abû Ya'qûb al–Warjlâni ‘Arranging (Tartîb)’ a hadîth
collection, supposedly essentially transmitted by al–Rabî' b. Habîb from Abû
'Ubayda and back through Jâbir b. Zayd to Ibn 'Abbâs and the first Muslims. The
origins of this work (along with other important Mashriqi material preserved in
the Maghrib, notably the Mudawwana) is examined and shown to be a manipulation
that has done great disservice to the Ibâḍis, leading them to be called the ‘Fifthers’ in the Maghrib. At
the same time, the Maghribis rationalized the early history of Ibâḍism with a line of Imams in kitmân
in Basra, exaggerating the role of Abû 'Ubayda and eliminating the key role
played by other proto-Ibâḍis. It was only
really with the development of an Ibâḍi renaissance from the 17th century onwards and yet further
conformism of the madhhab to Sunni norms that this hadîth collection
found nominal acceptance in Oman along with the Maghribi model of Ibâḍi origins.
I copied the abstract of each chapter from the
following link:
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