The Stages of the Ibadhi Community

        Ibadhi scholars use the term (Masalik al-Din), literally, the ways of religion, as referring to the stages of their community in which the laws of shari’ah are to be carried out. They mention the following four states:

Manifestation (zuhur);

Defence (difa’);

Sacrifice of one’s life (shira’);

The stage of Secrecy (kitman).

        Each stage has its rules and regulations, and all of them were experienced by Ibadhis throughout their history. All Ibadhi scholars agree that there are no stages other than these four. It is reported that Abu Bakr al-Zawaghi used to say at the sessions (majalis) which he held, ‘We are not in a stage of manifestation (zuhur), or defence (difa’), neither in a state of the sacrifice of one’s life (shira’), nor in secrecy (kitman), but our time is undefined.” On hearing this, his colleague Abu Zakariya Fasil b. Abi Miswar commented, “The stages of the Muslim community are four, whosoever increases or decreases them is in error.” These stages (masalik) were defined very early by Ibadhi scholars. Ibadhi interpretation of Islamic history in its first fifty years demonstrates that the Muslim community went through the four stages, whether during the Prophet’s lifetime or afterwards. The cycle of these stages was completed when the Umayyads took over and subjected the Muslim community to their rule. Under Umayyad rule, there was no chance for the true Muslims to propagate their views or to command well and prohibit evil,; for any such attempt usually led to imprisonment or death. The alternative for true Muslims was to practice their activities in secret. The Ibadhi movement intended to revive the true religion, and had to start in secrecy (kitman) with the aim of going through the same experience as the first Muslim community towards the stage of manifestation (zuhur).

        In the following pages a brief study of the stages of the Muslim community

(masalik al-Din) is undertaken.

MANIFESTATIONS (ZUHUR):

        Zuhur means the proclamation of the independent Imamate. During the state of manifestation Ibadhis elect their own Imam, who should rule them according to the Qur’an, sunnah, and the example of the rightly guided Imams. This is the principle stage which must be maintained by Muslims. The Prophet died leaving the Muslims in the stage of manifestation (zuhur). It is obligatory for Muslims to maintain this state in order to execute the commands of God. Hadd punishments, the Friday prayers, the collection of zakat and protection tax (jizyah), fighting such enemies as Polytheists and rebels (al-bughat) the proper division of spoils and zakat, none of these obligations can be carried out without the authority of the Imam. Ibadhi scholars cite the Caliphates of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar as examples of the stage of manifestation in early Islam.

        Whenever Muslims attain satisfactory conditions of proper, wealth, and knowledge of religion, so that they can execute the commands of God, and when they number about half of the enemy around them, they must proclaim the Imamate and elect their own Imam from among their outstanding men. The Imam had to implement the orders of God as long as his followers numbered more than forty. If their number becomes less, he must proclaim the dissolution of the Imamate.

THE STAGE OF DEFENCE (DIFA’):

       Defence becomes the obligatory duty in the absence of manifestation (zuhur). When under attack, or suspecting a sudden attack, the Muslims must elect a leader to lead them in fighting their enemy. Such a leader is called Imam al-difa’, Imam of defence. He must be a learned man of high military capability. He has the same full authority as the Imam of zuhur until the end of the war. At the end of the war his Imamate dissolves automatically, so the Muslims would have no difficulty in removing him from his office. The Muslims must then elect their new Imam as required by the resultant state, either of ‘manifestation’ or ‘secrecy’. The first Imaam of defence given in Ibadhi sources is Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi who was elected before the battle of al-Nahrawan. The other Imams of defence of North Africa included Abu Hatim al-Malzuzi, who tried to revive the Imamate of ‘manifestation’ which was established by Abu al-Khattab ‘Abd al-A’la b. al-Samh al-Ma'afiri, and Abu Khazr Yaghla b. Zaltaf, who tried to revive the Rustamid Imamate and fought the Fatimids for this purpose.

        Defence, (difa’), can be regarded as a general revolution against the unjust rule of tyrants or external enemies. If the general revolution fails to achieve its aim and is suppressed, the Ibadhi community enters a new stage known as the stage of secrecy, (kitman).

        Both secrecy (kitman) and the sacrifice of one’s life, (shira’), can operate at the same time; for shira’ is not more than a voluntary action of sacrificing one’s life; taken by a group of not less than forty men who sacrifice their lives in the way of God in order to encourage the rest of their community to change the unjust rule of the enemies of God.

SHIRA’, THE SACRIFICE OF ONE’S LIFE:

        The Arabic word shira’ means buying and selling. This term is used in Ibadhi writings for the action of sacrificing one’s life in the cause of God to attain Paradise. Shurat (pl.) are “those who have sold their souls for the cause of God.” The term al-shira’ is derived from the following verses of the Qur’an;

        “God has bought from the believers their selves and their possessions against the gift of Paradise; they fight in the way of God; they kill, and are killed; that is a promise binding upon God in the Torah, and the Gospel, and the Koran; and who fulfil his covenant truer than God? So rejoice in the bargain you have made Him…..,” and, “So let them fight in the way of God who sell the present life for the world to come, and whosoever fights in the way of God and is slain, or conquers, We shall bring him a mighty wage….,” and this verse, “But other men there are that sell themselves desiring God’s pleasure.”

        The first person who practised Shira’ was Abu Bilal Mirdas b. Hudair. The idea of Shira’ or Khuruj (coming out) occurred to him when he saw the harm caused by Ubaidullah b. Ziyad to his fellow-Muslims. His comment on the situation was, “Surely, being content with tyranny is an offence, and drawing the sword and frightening the people is grave, but we come out and fight no-one but those who do us wrong.” Abu Bilal used to elect among the Muslims, the most trustworthy and outstanding men for the task of Shira’. He explained the conditions of Shira’ in the following words in which he used to address every person who wished to join him; “You go out to fight in the way of God desiring His pleasure, not wanting anything of the goods of the present World, nor have you any desire of it, nor will you return to it. You are the abstemious and the hater of this life, the desirous for the World to Come, trying all in your power to obtain it. Going out to be killed and for nothing else. So know that you are going to be killed and have no return to this life; You are going forward and will not turn away from righteousness till you come to God. If such is your concern, go back and wind up you needs and wishes of this life, pay you debts, purchase yourself, take leave of your family and tell them that you will never return to them. When you have done so I will accept your pledge.”

        Some scholars suggest that the state of Shira’ was practised first during the Meccan period of the Prophet’s life. They point out that the Prophet declared Islam openly when the number of his followers reached forty, and was directed by the Qur’an to leave the house of al-Arqam b. Abi al-Arqam which was “the centre of his preaching activities.” When he had passed the stage of secrecy, God revealed to him, “O Prophet, God suffices thee, and the believers who follow thee.” According to Shaikh Muhammad Yusuf Atfaiyish, this verse was revealed in Mecca and was included afterwards in the chapter of the spoils (al-Anfal) which was revealed in Madina. However, it is difficult to agree with the suggestion that the stage of Shira’ in Ibadhi doctrine was derived from the above-mentioned event in the Prophet’s life. Even if the circumstances were similar, which they were not, there is still a great difference, which lies in the fact that the timing of such actions in the Prophet’s life was directly determined by revelation. The other thing is that all Muslims had to follow in any action the Prophet had to take, especially if the Qur’an commanded it, but the Ibadhis did not consider Shira’ as an individual obligation; it was a voluntary duty only. This was one of the main principles about which they differed from the Azraqites who considered Khuruj as an individual obligation.

        The following are the regulations of Shira’ as explained by Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Bakr; “…. They, i.e. the Shurat, agree that they sell themselves desiring God’s pleasure, and show no claim for ruling, but to end tyranny and revive righteousness. They must not revolt with less than forty men; they can complete the number with a woman. If their intention was not to return before ending falsity, batil), they, therefore, must not return to their homes unless they ended falsehood or died. If they went out with the intention to return if they wanted, they can return at any time. Their homes are their swords, so if they return to their original homes for any purpose, they must pray short prayers qasr and pray complete prayers during their revolt even though they were far away from their original homes.”

        Shira’ the most commendable sort of Jihad in the absence of manifest Imam. In fact, Ibadhis used shira’ in some cases as a bridge for establishing the Manifest Imamate.”

        The following are the main principles of Shira’:

          i.     Shira’ is a voluntary duty for Ibadhis in general, and an obligation for those who imposed it on themselves.

        ii.     The minimum number of forty persons must carry it out.

      iii.     They must elect their leader among themselves. The authority of their leader is binding on his followers only.

      iv.     Religious dissimulation, Taqiyah, does not behove the Shurat, they have to fight till they bring tyranny to an end or are killed. Some scholars say that they can return if only three of them were left.

        v.     They have no home except the places where they gather to fight their enemies; if they return to their original homes to get supplies, or information, or for any other purpose, they must consider themselves travellers and pray short prayers (qasr) while in their original homes.

      vi.     They must not fight anyone except those who fight them, must not follow the defeated or kill the injured, must not kill old men, women, or children, and must not take any spoils or property unless they have a right to it. For instance, it is reported that Abu Bilal Mirdas and his followers, in their revolt, came across a caravan bringing spoils to the governor of Basrah, Ubaidullah b. Ziyad; Abu Bilal stopped the caravan, took the emolument for himself and his companions, and gave receipts for that.

THE STAGE OF SECRECY (KITMAN):

        Kitman means hiding one’s beliefs. In this state the believers keep their beliefs in secret to avoid suppression by their enemies who will not allow the Ibadhis to profess their beliefs if they discovered them. In this sense, hiding one’s beliefs is the best way to preserve them. So ‘secrecy’ becomes an obligation in such a case. Ibadhis started their movement in secrecy to avoid suppression by the Umayyad rulers. Both Ibadhi leaders Jabir b. Zaid and his successor Abu ‘Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah acted in the stage of secrecy (kitman). All their activities were carried out in secret. During this time, secrecy was recommended almost in everything; it is reported that Dhuman b. al-Sa’ib, a pupil of Jabir and one of the leading Shaikhs of the Ibadhis community of Basrah, said, “Why is it that one of you hides his money and shows his religion; perhaps he will come across someone who will wrest it from him?!” Ibadhi scholars claim that the stage of secrecy (kitman) in their doctrine is derived from the life of the Prophet; but they differ in fixing the exact period of secrecy in the life of the Prophet. According to Shaikh Muhammad Yusuf Atfaiyish, it is the period between the beginning of the revelation up to the time when the number of the Muslims reached forty by ‘Umar b. al-Khattab declaring his acceptance of Islam. Abu Sulaiman Dawud b. Ibrahim al-Thulathi regards all the period before the Prophet’s immigration to Madina as a stage of secrecy, while Abu ‘Ammar ‘Abd al-Kafi says, “The Prophet stayed in Mecca for some time after the revelation, in secrecy.” It seems that he meant the period of three years of the prophethood before the revelation of this verse:

        “Proclaim what you have been ordered and turn aside from the polytheists.” However, this was the basis on which Ibadhi scholars furnished the proof for the obligation of secrecy (kitman) as a religious duty ordered in the Qur’an.

        After the collapse of the Rustamid Imamate in Tahert in 909 A.D. Ibadhis of North Africa tried to revive their Imamate under the leadership of Abu Khazr Yaghla b. Zaltaf, but they lost the battle of Baghy which they fought against the Fatimids on the year 358 A.H. After this the Ibadhis entered the stage of secrecy up to our times. No attempt was made afterwards by the Ibadhis of North Africa to establish a new Imamate. The regulations for the stage of secrecy as explained by Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad b. Bakr are that, “the Ibadhis must gather and appoint a leader to whom they pay their zakat and alms-giving (huquq). He takes it from the pious among them and distributes it among the pious ones. They must visit each other and form the ‘majalis’ for teaching their doctrine and worshipping God. They must also hold collective prayers and carry out all that they can of the duty of enjoining good and prohibiting evil”. Ibadhi communities during the time of secrecy become underground organisations which work in secret to keep the unity of the community and the teachings of the Ibadhi school.

        The stage of secrecy which began in North Africa after the defeat of the Ibadhis in Baghy, produced the system of the ‘Azzabah. This system is, in many aspects, similar to the organisation of the Ibadhi Shaikhs of Basrah in the times of Jabir b. Zaid and Abu ‘Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah. In every Ibadhi gathering ‘Azzabah councils were formed to look after the affairs of the people. The councils had to be formed of the best people in the community, of special qualities and for special tasks. During secrecy, the ‘Azzabah councils exercise the full authority of the Imam in ruling the Ibadhi society in religious and social affairs. Since they were established, these councils are still in action in Wad Mzab, but in both Ibadhi communities of Jabal Nufusah and Jerba Island they were dissolved during the Ottoman rule. A detailed study of the ‘Azzabah system, its rules and regulations, and the role it played in the Ibadhi communities and education will be an interesting one, and of great value.

        In the following few pages it is aimed to pinpoint the laws resulting from the former division of the stages of the Ibadhi community (masalik al-Din) in the Ibadhi jurisprudence.

        There is not much to be said about the stages of difa’ and Zuhur here, except that religious dissimulation (taqiyah) does not behove the Imams of Difa’ and zuhur; this rule applies to the Shurat as well. Among modern Ibadhi scholars, Shaikh Muhammad Yusuf Atfaiyish objected to this opinion regarding the Imam of Zuhur, ‘for,” as he argues, “if religious dissimulation is lawful for individuals to save their lives, the question of the Imamate must be of greater importance.”

        Concerning the stage of difa’, it is already mentioned that the Imamate of defence (Imamat al-difa') dissolves automatically after the end of the war, but some scholars hold that the Imamate of defence can remain after the end of the war as well.

        Regarding the stage of shira’, it has already been mentioned that it is a voluntary duty for more than forty persons, and that they must pray full prayer during their revolt though they are far from their original homes. In case the Shurat wanted to take over during the Imamate of defence, they have all the right to do so, for the Imam of the Shurat, for his intention of sacrificing his life for the cause of the Ibadhi community, is more entitled to the right of leadership than the Imam of difa’. Apart from this, all the laws of the Shurat are the same as those of the Ibadhi community during kitman.

        Among the four stages, secrecy (kitman) was of great influence on Ibadhi jurisprudence in North Africa. Abu Ya’qub al-Warijlani, discussed in details the laws of kitman in his two books, al-Dalil, and al-‘Adl wa al-Insaf. The most important aspect is the suspension of the hadd punishment during kitman. According to Warijlani, Ibadhis regarded the stage of kitman of their community of the same conditions as the corresponding stage in the life of the Prophet in Mecca before hijrah when no hadd punishments were revealed yet. However, some Ibadhi scholars acted contrary to this rule on certain occasions on the basis that secrecy (kitman) takes the laws of zuhur whenever it is possible, though that zuhur must not take the laws of kitman. The only exception to the decision of the suspension of the hudud is killing those who defame the Ibadhis. Such people are to be killed by any means at any time during the four stages.

        During kitman Ibadhis have to live under the rule of tyrants. Special rules were laid down for Ibadhis regarding their relationship with ‘tyrants’ in the time of kitman. The main principle is that the Ibadhis must not be of any help to tyrants in their rule, so they must not hold any posts for them. The exception to this rule is that those members of the Ibadhi community who are known for their opposition to the ‘tyrants’ and were capable of commanding them to good and forbidding them from evil, such members can hold posts in the rule of ‘tyrants’; they can lead their troops in jihad, be in charge of the spoils (ghanai’m), Qadiship, or futya (delivering legal opinions on religious questions). Ibadhis, in this attitude, follow the example of Ibn ‘Abbas, Jabir b. Zaid, al-Hasan al-Basri and Shuraih al-Qadi. All these great scholars were known for their opposition to the rule of ‘tyrants’ and held posts under them. The condition for such an attitude is to run the posts according to the shari’ah and not fear anybody in practising justice.

        If the members did not have the same qualities as those mentioned they must not be in charge of any post which is related to the public interest and might harm people, such as being in charge of the market, or shurtah (police), or hisbah, etc., but there are certain jobs which they can hold such as calling for prayers (adhan, leading the prayers, lecturing in mosques, and teaching in the schools.

        There are certain occasions on which the ‘tyrants’ force Ibadhis to act or speak

contrary to their beliefs. In such circumstances, Ibadhi school allows its followers to use a special dispensation (rukhsah) under the principle of religious dissimulation (taqiyah) to avoid the punishment of death. They can, for example, say that there is more than one God, or claim walayah for the enemies of God, and bara’ah from the true believers, or give false testimony, or tell lies, all these with the tongue only without believing it. They also can eat during the day in Ramadhan, or eat carrion, blood, or pork, all this to avoid the punishment of death. If the punishment is, for instance, imprisonment, and they know that they will not die in prison of hunger or thirst, or some other cruel punishment, they must not then take the advantage of the special dispensation to avoid imprisonment, for it is lawful only for avoiding death. However, there are certain actions that they must not do even if that should cause them the loss of their lives, such as slaying the innocent, or seizing people’s property or wasting it, or giving up their weapons to the enemies, or drinking wine, committing adultery, or eating and drinking the unclean (najas).

        Although the Ibadhis held it lawful to live under the rule of ‘tyrants’ during kitman, the most commendable attitude for members of the Ibadhi community is to keep away from tyrants and to be of any help to them.

        On the other hand, Ibadhis must pray Friday prayers with the tyrants, and join them in the daily prayers in order to keep collective prayers.

        It is also lawful for the Ibadhis to take gifts from the ‘tyrants’ if they give them, nut they must not ask the ‘tyrants’ for them. The Nukkar, however, objected to this, and this was one of the topics on which they differed from the other Ibadhi scholars. Besides, Ibadhis, although living under the rule of ‘tyrants’, must have their own organisation to look after their affairs, and to plan for the safety of their community and to preserve the teachings of their schools; in other words, to prevent the Ibadhis from melting into the large body of their opponents, and to prepare for ‘manifestation’.

Reference:

Studies in Ibadhism- al-ibadiyah; by Amr Ennami, pg:335-351